Abstract
This study aims to examine how digital inequality shaped students’ distance learning experiences during COVID-19 in Kazakhstan by identifying infrastructural and socio-cultural barriers to equitable online education. Using a mixed-methods design, data were collected from 540 secondary and university students through a structured 29-item questionnaire assessing digital access, satisfaction, engagement, and socio-cultural factors, with participants retrospectively reflecting on their distance learning experiences between November 2024 and February 2025. The sample included 247 secondary school students and 293 university students with balanced urban–rural representation. Urban–rural differences were analysed using Welch’s t-tests, χ² tests, and regression analyses, while qualitative responses were examined through thematic analysis. Results show that rural students reported significantly lower digital access, reduced satisfaction with distance learning, and less willingness to continue online education compared to urban peers. However, rural students with stable internet connectivity, personal devices, and adequate home study spaces reported satisfaction levels comparable to urban students, highlighting key infrastructure thresholds for equity. Qualitative findings further revealed that socio-cultural barriers, concerns about academic integrity, isolation, and loss of peer support gradually shifted toward acceptance when institutional support improved. Overall, the findings underscore the need for targeted broadband expansion, device provision, multilingual e-learning platforms, and community engagement strategies to promote equitable and resilient digital education in Kazakhstan.