Abstract
Drinking water quality in rural areas is impacted by industrial and agricultural runoff, water treatment infrastructure, and household economic conditions. This study explores the relationship between drinking water quality, water sources, and land cover types in northeastern Kazakhstan. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated for each household and village using the Horton Equation. Land cover was mapped using Sentinel-2 Level-2A imagery. Statistical differences among villages were analyzed through one-way ANOVA and t-tests. A Structural Equation Model (SEM) was built using Maximum Likelihood estimators, with significance set at p < 0.05. Significant variations in manganese, hydrocarbonates, and chlorides were observed based on the distance from the Irtysh River and water sources. Grasslands had the greatest influence on water parameters (−14.89), followed by croplands (5.96), urban lands (2.15), and other land types (2), with forests having the least effect. Biological indicators, such as Actinomycetes sp., were significantly correlated with forests (2.32) and other land cover types. Grasslands reduce mineral content in groundwater, while croplands and forests contribute to mineral enrichment, particularly nitrates from croplands. Urban areas increase chemical loads in groundwater, and manganese levels decrease with distance from the Irtysh River. Chlorides and hydrocarbonates are highest near the river. Rural water treatment infrastructure should be improved, stricter pollution controls should be enforced, and sustainable land use practices should be promoted to reduce agricultural and urban runoff. Additionally, economic incentives for household filtration, regular water quality monitoring, and a coordinated watershed management approach can enhance long-term water security.