Abstract
Abstract: Hormones are key biomolecules that play a crucial role in maintaining the health of individuals. Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are widely distributed environmental contaminants that interfere with hormonal activities, affecting growth, development, and overall health. Exposure to EDCs is linked with metabolic disorders, reproductive disorders, neurological disorders, and cancer. This review examines the properties of EDCs, their interactions with receptors, the mechanism of action, and their adverse health effects. It highlights strategies to reduce exposure to EDCs. EDCs are present in various materials of daily life, including plastic bottles, toys, detergents, metallic food cans, cosmetics, flame retardants, medical devices, and pesticides. Some notable examples of EDCs are bisphenol A, polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalates, chlorpyrifos, and DDT, which interfere with hormonal regulation and may also undergo bioaccumulation in the tissues. Exposure to EDCs primarily occurs through the consumption of contaminated products, inhalation, and skin contact. Recent studies have revealed that the functions of androgen, estrogen, and thyroid hormones are commonly affected. Key mechanisms include interaction with receptors (mainly nuclear receptors) and interference with signalling pathways. It is also suggested that some endocrine disruptors may cause epigenetic changes and oxidative stress. Nowadays, EDCs are becoming a growing threat to public health, underscoring the need for enhanced public health initiatives, comprehensive analysis of long-term health impacts, and globally harmonized emission thresholds to control the release of EDCs into the environment. Additionally, as these compounds are present in the environment at low concentrations, highly sensitive analytical techniques are required for their analysis. Several conventional and advanced analytical techniques (GC-MS, HPLC, LC-MS/MS, electrochemical sensor, optical biosensor, gold nanoparticle-based detection, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots) have been used to identify different EDCs from the environmental matrices. Despite the promising analytical techniques, structural diversity, high mobility, and trace complexity in environmental matrices make it challenging to identify these compounds in the environment. Additionally, continued research is required to enhance the understanding of the mechanisms of action of EDCs and to develop effective mitigation strategies.