Abstract
Hybrid warfare poses an increasing and complex threat to Swedish health care, particularly emergency and trauma services that are integral to the total defence system. Hybrid threats combine military, civilian and technological methods, including cyberattacks, sabotage, terrorism, disinformation and disruption of critical infrastructure, often below the threshold of declared war. Health care systems are especially vulnerable, as impaired functionality rapidly affects public trust and societal resilience. Key risks include cyberattacks on digital health systems, physical violence and terrorism targeting hospitals and ambulances, Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive (CBRNE) incidents, disruption of medical supply chains, drone-related interference with air ambulance services, and disinformation campaigns undermining trust in health authorities. Regional differences in geography and infrastructure further influence exposure and response capacity.