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RSC Advances, 2026
It is built from checkable properties of the record itself: whether the article has a DOI, how many independent sources confirmed its data, whether the required fields are filled in, and how recent the latest confirmation is. Disagreement between sources and a missing identifier lower it. A value of 80 or above means the record was published without further checking; 60 to 79 means it is published at reduced confidence, with a manual check advisable. A record verified by an editor by hand is never pushed below 90 by a recalculation. This scores our data about the article, not the article itself.
TTA-based systems is presented, underscoring their respective advantages (spectral range, stability, efficiency) and constraints. Finally, we outline future research directions and integration strategies aimed at combining the strengths of both upconversion approaches to maximize solar-to-hydrogen efficiency. The insights from this review suggest that upconversion materials can play a complementary and transformative role in next-generation solar water-splitting technologies.